Essay --

Before 2003 there were six million people living peacefully and all of the sudden there were three million people displaced, 400,000 people dead, and one despot. This sudden change was due to the Darfur government killing the citizens of Darfur. It began in 2003 when two peacekeeping rebel groups challenged the Darfur government, accusing it of neglect. The government responded by killing and raping as many people they could making it a national genocide. A Genocide is the action of deliberately killing a group of people, specifically one certain ethnic group or religion. Darfur's government and the Janjaweed army have been devastating lives of the Darfurian people by destroying their homes and killing many Darfurians since the beginning of 2003. The Genocide has been said to have officially started on February 26, 2003 when a rebel group called DLF publically claimed that they had attacked Golo, Western Darfur. Even before the genocide had began there were several attacks on the Darfur government by rebel groups. For example, on February 25, 2002 the rebels attacked an army garrison on a mountain. This all started in Sudan, which is the largest country in Africa, located south of Egypt. Darfur is one of the eighteen states in Sudan is about the size of Texas. Darfur is broken up into five smaller states, which are West Darfur, Central Darfur, East Darfur, South Darfur, and North Darfur. Darfur is bordered by Chad, Libya, and Central African Republic. The Darfurians have not only been troubled by the government, but also by the lack of food and water. The rough and desert like terrain makes it hard to grow crops. The region is also very drought prone making it hard to grow crops too. The state of Darfur has about six mi ... ...e in that one shooting 136 men was killed. This incident happened in Garisla, an area south of Zingei, in Wadi Saleh. Darfur's government and the Janjaweed army have been devastating lives of the Darfurian people by destroying their homes and killing many Darfurians since the beginning of 2003. Darfur’s genocide has impacted the world greatly by warning people what could happen with a corrupt government. The current issue has put fear in everyone’s lives by making them think about every decision that the government is making. I believe that the current situation in Darfur is unfair for the people. Instead of living life, they are trying to survive. A newspaper has said that the â€Å"United Nations officials have characterized the situation as ‘the greatest humanitarian catastrophe ever.’† Everyday the Darfurians wake up thinking â€Å"will I see the sun rise tomorrow?†

Psychology of Prediction Essay

Over the decades, there has been much controversy on the effectiveness of clinical predictions which are mostly based on experts’ intuition. Researches from the past decades have proven that statistical methods are more accurate than clinical predictions and other researches examined heuristic principles used in predicting and judging outcomes during times when there is uncertainty or insufficient information. Although relying upon these heuristics simplifies judgment to a certain degree, this may lead to severe errors. Basically, there are three heuristic principles proposed by Kahneman and Tversky (1974). The first is called the availability heuristic, wherein predictions are made based on the information available. The second is anchoring, wherein predictions are based on a series of numerical estimates or â€Å"anchors†. The third one is called the representativeness heuristic, wherein predictions are made based on the subsistence of apparently similar cases. This paper studies one of these heuristic principles namely, representativeness heuristic, to show how this heuristic can lead to bias on clinical predictions and hence, show that such heuristics are, indeed, less accurate than predictions based upon statistical methods. First, the author feels compelled to give a little background on a few studies over the on-going clinical-statistical controversy. In 1996, Grove and Meehl proved that statistical method â€Å"is almost invariably equal to or superior to clinical method† (p. 293) in terms of accuracy in prediction. They analyzed secondary data coming from 136 published English researches since the 1920s which dealt with the prediction of health-related phenomena or human behaviour. These researches should also contain at least one of each prediction — that is, at least one clinical prediction or one based on human judgment and at least one mechanical or statistical prediction. As have mentioned earlier, all of the researches they included in their studied proved that statistical method is indeed almost always equal to or superior to clinical method because statistical prediction obtained from organized data are almost always free from bias. These data are observed from actual experiences and are recorded with precise instruments instead of relying on unaided memory. Moreover, statistical inferences are more objective than the human mind which can be bias at times or which can neglect certain important attributes that are necessary before even concluding on the result and thus, sometimes resulting to severe errors in predictions. Hence, predictions obtained from these statistical methods produce unbiased results in contrast with predictions made from human judgment. There are many reasons and examples that can show the superiority of statistical method over clinical method. In this paper, one type of heuristic is presented based on the observations of Kahneman and Tversky in their paper On the Psychology of Prediction (1973). Their paper is chosen due to the fact that it presents how people, specifically clinicians, judge certain events based on similar events that happened in the past. In the end, this paper shows how such a heuristic (representativeness) can lead to certain and possibly severe errors in judgment as compared to the event of using statistical method. Data analysis, discussion and conclusion are all based upon the findings of Kahneman and Tversky (1973) and Grove and Meehl (1996). In 1973, Kahneman and Tversky discussed two classes of prediction, the categorical prediction, in which predictions are presented nominally and numerical prediction, in which predictions are presented in numerically. They first examined category predictions by dividing 248 participants into three groups — 69 participants for the base-rate ¬ group, 65 participants for the similarity group and 114 participants for the prediction group. The base-rate group was asked to guess the percentage of first-year graduate students in the US who are enrolled as of the time the study was in progress in each of the nine fields of specialization namely, Business Administration, Computer Science, Engineering, Humanities and Education, Law, Library Science, Medicine, Physical and Life Sciences, and Social Science and Social Work. The similarity group was given a personality sketch (see Kahneman and Tversky, p. 38) and asked to rank the nine areas in terms of â€Å"how similar is Tom W. to the typical graduate student in each of the following nine fields of graduate specialization? †. The prediction group, which consists of graduate students in psychology at three major universities in the United States was also given the same personality sketch as that given to the similarity group with some additional information (see Kahneman and Tversky, p. 239) and was asked to predict Tom W’s choice of specialization. Kahneman and Tversky compared the results of these three groups by presenting a table (see Kahneman and Tversky, p. 238) and computing the product-moment correlations between the columns of the table. In so doing, they confirmed their hypothesis that most people predict certain events based on representativeness. Kahneman and Tversky explained that this happens because all the participants ignored certain important features before drawing their conclusions. In this way, they violate the normative rules of information. The participants, basically, ignored the three types of information relevant in any statistical analysis namely, prior or background information (presented to the participants using base rates of fields of graduate specialization, specific evidence concerning the individual case (presented to the participants using the personality sketch of Tom W. ) and the expected accuracy of prediction. The statistically correct method of predicting Tom W’s choice of specialization would be to compare the relative weights assigned to specific evidence and prior information with that of expected accuracy. As Kahneman and Tversky explains â€Å"when expected accuracy decreases, predictions should become more regressive, that is, closer to the expectations based on prior information† (p. 239). However, the participants in their study predicted without even considering the prior probabilities assigned to the specific evidence as described in Tom W’s personality sketch. Kahneman and Tversky (1973) also examined in their paper how numerical predictions can also lead to bias judgments or severe errors. In a study designed analogously with their study on categorical predictions, they showed that people also tend to predict by representativeness. That is, most predict an outcome using a score that is most representative of the description they were provided. Kahneman and Tversky’s showed us that whether people were given nominal or numerical data, they tend to predict outcomes by representativeness. Most may think that predicting by representativeness is more efficient than statistical methods since one should only consider similar or representative events while statistical methods require rigorous (as most think) tasks such as observing and gathering data and computing for too many measures such as mean, standard deviation and the like. However, this can become less accurate since they fail to consider some important parts in their analysis before drawing conclusions whereas statistical methods consider all of the important parts required before completely analyzing a data. Such statistical and mechanical methods reduce bias since these methods rely on precise measuring instruments than heuristic methods which rely almost entirely to memory or past knowledge which are most of the time insufficient or cannot wholly represent a certain event. Moreover, results derived from heuristic methods such as representativeness can vary depending upon the perception of different people. Results from statistical method, on the other hand, vary only because of variation between groups or within-groups. But even if data is given to five hundred different people, as long as the data is still the same, it will still yield the same result.

Introduction to counselling

Counseling Skills Day one was one of nerves mixed with anticipation. I already told myself not to have an expectation Just to turn up openly and approach the course as I progress. The Introduction was as expected, Mrs../Miss Rachel Ellis, our tutor introduces herself then explain her she will like us to get to know each other for 10 minutes then talk about the person who Just told you about them self. We were sat in a semi-circle awards the front of the class.It was a matter of Just the person next to you In an anta-clock wise manner. Sitting to my right was fellow student Citrine (CIA) happily married, two kids, employed and was on the course as a matter of exploring. As Citrine and I were the two last persons to Introduce each other, we had the opportunity to listen and establish what background the other students/landfalls and possible the â€Å"driving force† behind the course. As expected It was a diverse, In seasons and profession, and this for me was a really good thing within.Although the reasoning was diverse due to the diversity of employment, not until the end I realize the goals were common. Everyone just wanted to reach out to others in some way. This was made clear through communicating and relating to other members of the group conducting various exercises. Mainly, the points of reflection study/discussion sessions. With all this said a few of the fundamental things I were reminded of/ earn of today was the important aspects confidentiality issues, especially in the training group.In addition I'm able to recognize the importance of building a relationship with others within our group. With these two, other members will be more expressive (openness) and therefore there will be more rewarding for all concerns. Finally, I can apply the study skills to reflect on my learning.

Evolution of Management Essay

EARLY MANAGEMENT Organizations and managers have existed for thousands of years. The Egyptian pyramids and the Great Wall of China were projects of tremendous scope and magnitude, and required good management. Regardless of the titles given to managers throughout history, someone has always had to plan what needs to be accomplished, organize people and materials, lead and direct workers, and impose controls to ensure that goals were attained as planned. Another example of early management can be found in the city of Venice, which was a major economic and trade center in 1400s. the venetians developed an early form of business enterprise and engaged in many activities common to today’s organizations. The venetians used warehouse and inventory systems to keep track of materials, human resource management functions to manage the labor force and an accounting system to keep track of revenues and costs. Two historical events significant to the study of management are work of Adam Smith, in his book,’ The Wealth of Nations’, in which he argued brilliantly for the economic advantages of division of labor (the breakdown of jobs into narrow, repetitive tasks). The Industrial Revolution is second important pre-twentieth-century influence on management. The introduction of machine powers combined with the division of labor made large, efficient factories possible. Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling became necessary activities. There are six major approaches to management. They are explained as follows; 1) SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT Scientific management is defined as the use of the scientific method to determine the â€Å"one best way† for a job to be done. The most important contributor in this field was Frederick W. Taylor who is known as the â€Å"father† of scientific management. Using his principles of scientific management; (1) scientifically study each part of a task and develop the best method of performing the task, (2) scientifically select and then  train, teach and develop the worker, (3) cooperate fully with workers to ensure that they use the proper method, (4) divide work and responsibility almost equally between management and workers. Management takes over all work for which it is better fitted than the workers. Taylor was able to define the â€Å"one best way† for doing each job. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were inspired by Taylor’s work and proceeded to study and develop their own methods of scientific management. They devised a classification scheme to label 17 basic hand motions called therbligs in order to eliminate wasteful motions Guidelines devised by Taylor and others to improve production efficiency are still used in today’s organizations. However, current management practice is not restricted to scientific management practices alone. Elements of scientific management still used include: 1. Using time and motion studies 2. Hiring best qualified workers 3. Designing incentive systems based on output 2) GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE THEORISTS This group of writers, who focused on the entire organization, developed more general theories of what managers do and what constitutes good management practice. Henri Fayol and Max Weber were the two most prominent proponents of the general administrative approach. Fayol focused on activities common to all managers. He described the practice of management as distinct from other typical business functions. He stated 14 principles of management which are as follows: 1. Division of Work. Specialization increases output by making employees more efficient. 2. Authority. Managers must be able to give orders, and authority give them this right. 3. Discipline. Employees must obey and respect the  rules that govern the organization. 4. Unity of Command. Every employee should receive orders from only one superior. 5. Unity of Direction. The organization should have a single plan of action to guide managers and workers. 6. Subordination of individual interest to group interest. The interest of any one employee or group of employees should not take precedence over the interests of the organization as a whole. 7. Remuneration. Workers must be paid a fair wage for their services. 8. Centralization. This term refers to the degree to which subordinates are involved in decision making. 9. Scalar Chain. The line of authority from top management to the lowest ranks is the scalar chain. 10. Order. People and materials should be in the right place at the right time. 11. Equity. Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates. 12. Stability of tenure of personnel. Management should provide orderly personnel planning and ensure that replacements are available to fill vacancies. 13. Initiative. Employees who are allowed to originate and carry out plans will exert high levels of effort. 14. Espirit de corps. Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the organization. Max Weber was a German sociologist who developed a theory of authority structures and described organizational activity based on authority relations. He described the ideal form of organization as a bureaucracy marked by division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy, detailed rules and regulations, and impersonal relationships. Some current management concepts and theories can be traced to the work of the general administrative theorists. The functional view of a manager’s job relates to Henri Fayol’s concept of management. Weber’s bureaucratic characteristics are evident in many of today’s large organizations—even in highly flexible organizations that employ talented professionals. Some bureaucratic mechanisms are necessary in highly innovative organizations to ensure that resources are used efficiently and effectively. Weber’s Ideal Bureaucracy 3) QUANTITATIVE APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT The quantitative approach to management, sometimes known as operations research or management science, uses quantitative techniques to improve decision making. This approach includes applications of statistics, optimization models, information models, and computer simulations. The quantitative approach originated during World War II as mathematical and statistical solutions to military problems were developed for wartime use. The relevance of quantitative approach today is that it has contributed most directly to managerial decision making, particularly in planning and controlling. The availability of sophisticated computer software programs has made the use of quantitative techniques more feasible for managers. 4) ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR The field of study concerned with the actions (behaviors) of people at work is organizational behavior. Organizational behavior (OB) research has contributed much of what we know about human resources management and contemporary views of motivation, leadership, trust, teamwork, and conflict management. The early advocates of OB approach were Robert Owen, Hugo Munsterberg, Mary Parker Follett, and Chester Barnard. Their ideas served as the foundation for employee selection procedures, motivation programs, work teams, and organization-environment management techniques. The Hawthorne Studies were the most important contribution to the development of organizational behavior. This series of experiments conducted from 1924 to the early 1930s at Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works in Cicero, Illinois, were initially devised as a scientific management experiment to assess the impact of changes in various physical environment variables on employee productivity. After Harvard professor Elton Mayo and his associates joined the study as  consultants, other experiments were included to look at redesigning jobs, make changes in workday and workweek length, introduce rest periods, and introduce individual versus group wage plans. The researchers concluded that social norms or group standards were key determinants of individual work behavior. Although not without criticism (concerning procedures, analyses of findings, and the conclusions), the Hawthorne Studies stimulated interest in human behavior in organizational settings. In the present day context behavioral approach assists managers in designing jobs that motivate workers, in working with employee teams, and in facilitating the flow of communication within organizations. The behavioral approach provides the foundation for current theories of motivation, leadership, and group behavior and development. 5) THE SYSTEMS APPROACH During the 1960s researchers began to analyze organizations from a systems perspective based on the physical sciences. A system is a set of interrelated and interdependent parts arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole. The two basic types of systems are open and closed. A closed system is not influenced by and does not interact with its environment. An open system interacts with its environment. The Organization as an Open System Using the systems approach, managers envision an organization as a body with many interdependent parts, each of which is important to the well-being of the organization as a whole. Managers coordinate the work activities of the various parts of the organization, realizing that decisions and actions taken in one organizational area will affect other areas. The systems approach recognizes that organizations are not self-contained;  they rely on and are affected by factors in their external environment. 6) THE CONTINGENCY APPROACH The contingency approach recognizes that different organizations require different ways of managing. The contingency approach to management is a view that the organization recognizes and responds to situational variables as they arise. Popular Contingency Variables Organization size As size increases, so do the problems of coordination. Routineness of task technology Routine technologies require organizational structure, leadership styles, and control systems that differ from those required by customized or non-routine technologies. Environmental uncertainty What works best in a stable and predictable environment may be totally inappropriate in a rapidly changing and unpredictable environment. Individual differences Individuals differ in terms of their desire for growth, autonomy, tolerance or ambiguity, and expectations. CURRENT TRENDS AND ISSUES The following are the current concepts and practices are changing the way managers do their jobs today. Globalization: Organizational operations are no longer limited by national borders. Managers throughout the world must deal with new opportunities and challenges inherent in the globalization of business. Ethics: Cases of corporate lying, misrepresentations, and financial manipulations have been widespread in recent years. Managers of firms such as Enron, ImClone, Global Crossing, and Tyco International have placed their own self-interest ahead of other stakeholders’ welfare. While most managers continue to behave in a highly ethical manner, abuses suggest a need to  Ã¢â‚¬Å"upgrade† ethical standards. Ethics education is increasingly emphasized in college curricula today. Organizations are taking a more active role in creating and using codes of ethics, ethics training programs, and ethical hiring procedures. Workforce diversity: It refers to a workforce that is heterogeneous in terms of gender, race, ethnicity, age, and other characteristics that reflect differences. Accommodating diverse groups of people by addressing different lifestyles, family needs, and work styles is a major challenge for today’s managers. Entrepreneurship: It is the process whereby an individual or group of individuals use organized efforts to pursue opportunities to create value and grow by fulfilling wants and needs through innovation and uniqueness, no matter what resources the entrepreneur currently has. Three important themes stand out in this definition: a. The pursuit of opportunities b. Innovation c. Growth Entrepreneurship will continue to be important to societies around the world. Managing in an E-Business World: E-business (electronic business) is a comprehensive term describing the way an organization does its work by using electronic (Internet-based) linkages with its key constituencies in order to efficiently and effectively achieve its goals. Knowledge Management and Learning Organizations: Change is occurring at an unprecedented rate. To be successful, today’s organization must become a learning organization—one that has developed the capacity to continuously learn, adapts, and change. Knowledge management involves cultivating a learning culture where organizational members systematically gather knowledge and share it with others in the organization so as to achieve better performance. Quality Management: Quality management is a philosophy of management that is driven by continual improvement and response to customer needs and expectations. The objective of quality management is to create an organization committed to continuous improvement in work.

Principles of communication-111 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Principles of communication-111 - Essay Example Secondly, the employers owe the employees the obligation of consulting with them concerning the decisions that are made relating to the normal chores in the performance of their work duties. Consultative decision-making has always proved to be pivotal in the management of workers. This is because the employees are allowed to express their views and concerns to the management, which in turn is responsible to adhere to the demands of the employees (Queensland Government web). Thirdly, the employers should provide all the appropriate personal protective equipment, which are required to ensure to ensure workers can complete their job safely. Protective equipment plays a major role in ensuring that the safety of workers is adhered to. Consequently, safe employees will produce more than the unsafe employees will. In addition, it the obligation of the employers should monitor and evaluate the occupational health safety systems and procedures to ensure that workers are adequately protected from work place hazards. It is the obligation of the employers to provide facilities for the welfare of the employees. The welfare system covers many areas including toilettes facilities to conducting risk assessments on the plants and equipment is used. They should also make the procedures known to the employees. Moreover, the employers have a duty the employees the agreed amount if the employee arrives for work and is able to work. The payments include the agreed upon remuneration of wages and salaries (Queensland Government web). Another major obligations is that the employers are responsible to give the employees work to do. However, if the employee is paid by commission, and the employer does not give the employee any work to do, or if not working, could damage the employees reputation. In addition, the employers are obliged to give the correct information to their employees about their rights

ECRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

ECRM - Essay Example The following paragraphs will describe the scope and meaning of the terms consumer demographics and psychographics and then explains how marketing analytics is used to optimize sales campaigns for targeting the customers. Consumer demographics consist of data related to factors like the gender, age groups, marital status, income levels, cultural and social background, regional backgrounds, political or religious affiliations and educational background (Park and Srinivasa, 1994). It is understood that these factors help in shaping the customer’s preferences and likes and also shape his overall attitudes towards products or services as well as the actual consumer behavior. For example, the age group of the customer will determine what lifecycle stage he is in – if the customer is in his 30s then it is likely that he would be starting on his career and would have a household with spouse and kids. This lifestyle stage would involve the customer in purchases related to house maintenance, groceries or health or medical insurance. Similarly, a teenager would prefer to purchase music while a woman with kids would buy baby food. Demographic data therefore provides a great amount of insight into the likely preferences and needs of potential customers. It is therefore essential from the marketing point of view as it provides a basis of forecasting demands by the companies. By collecting accurate demographic data, the organizations can get a clear picture of prospective customers for their own specific products and services (Brewer, 2005). For example, an organization that manufactures ready to make processed foods would select a target demographic profi le for its potential customers as educated married couples with both spouses working and having a substantial income. This profile is chosen because it is expected that people who are married and have kids and are also working, would be hard pressed for time and would therefore prefer processed

Cyber-Bullying and Cyber-Bating - Specific Issues of Generation Z Assignment

Cyber-Bullying and Cyber-Bating - Specific Issues of Generation Z - Assignment Example As a function of understanding all of these determinants, the following analysis will engage in something of a cause and effect analysis of bullying. It is the aim of this section that through such analysis the reader can gain a more informed and rational understanding of how cyber-bullying impacts upon the development and prospects of the individual who suffers from it. Likewise, the second portion of this analysis will focus on a new trend that has come to be known as â€Å"cyber-bating†; a technique that is used to prompt a teacher or authority figure past the threshold of anger and then record this demonstration of frustration as a means of degrading or humiliating them. All of this has come to be a core concern; especially with respect to Generation Z – commonly referred to as the cohort of individuals born after the Millennium. Firstly, the causes of cyber-bullying are various. Much of the existing scholarship points to the fact that existing social issues, dynamics, and the willingness to have a level of power over another individual oftentimes prompts a would be full to engage in the process from the very beginning. However, it is also understood that unhealthy family relationships or issues that are unaddressed/traumatic oftentimes contribute to encouraging bullying behaviour as a means of passing the pain and hardship on to another individual. Sadly, as a result of this flawed and inappropriate view of the world, bullies have a lasting impact with respect to the way in which individuals live their lives. For instance, pervasive bullying has been effectively linked to low levels of self-esteem or self-confidence. Further, this is something of a slippery slope due to the fact that individuals experience a particularly low level of self-confidence are oftentimes picked on even more and bullied by other individuals; due to their nonconformity.  Ã‚